The Story of Ashoka

The Story of Asokaics.

Ashoka proves monarchy is wrong, as even the most revered as nice leader in monarchial history, massacred 100,000 people in legend.

Emperor Ashoka the Great (Devanagari: (304 BC-232 BC) was an Indian emperor, who ruled the Maurya Empire in present-day eastern India from 273 BC to 232 BC. After a number of military conquests, Ashoka reigned over most of India, South Asia & beyond, from present-day Afghanistan & parts of Persia in the west, to Bengal & Assam in the east, & as far south as Mysore. A later convert to Buddhism, Ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Shakyamuni Buddha, & according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation & transmission of Buddhism.
The name "Ashoka" means "without sorrow" in Sanskrit. In his edicts he is referred to as "Devaanaampriya" or "The Beloved Of The Gods of heaven".
H.G. Wells science fiction novelist, wrote of Ashoka: "In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings & emperors who called themselves 'their highnesses,' 'their majesties,' & 'their exalted majesties' & so on. They shone for a brief moment, & as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines & shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day."
His legend is related in the 2nd century CE Ashokavadana ("Narrative of Ashoka") & Divyavadana ("Divine narrative").
Scene of "The Gift of Dirt", 2nd century Gandhara. The child Jaya, said to be reborn later as Ashoka, offers a gift of dirt (which, in his game he imagines as food) to the Buddha, hereby acquiring merit, by which the Buddha foresees he will rule India & spread the Buddhist faith.
According to Buddhist tradition, described in the 2nd century CE "Legend of Ashoka", the birth of Ashoka was foretold by the Buddha, in the story of "The Gift of Dust":
"A hundred years after my death there will be an emperor named Ashoka in Pataliputra. He will rule one of the four continents & adorn Jambudvipa with my relics building eighty four thousand stupas for the welfare of people. He will have them honored by gods & men. His fame will be widespread. His meritorious gift was just this: Jaya threw a handful of dust into the Tathaagata's bowl." Ashokavadana
Following this prophecy, the "Legend of Ashoka" further states that Ashoka was finally born as the son of the Mauryan Emperor Bindusara by a relatively lower ranked queen named Dharma. Dharma was said to be the daughter of a poor Brahmin who introduced her into the harem of the Emperor as it was predicted that her son would be a great ruler. Although Dharma was of priestly lineage, the fact that she was not royal by birth made her a very low-status consort in the harem.
Ashoka had several elder half-brothers & just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka, another son of Dharma. The princes were extremely competitive, but young Ashoka excelled in the military & academic disciplines in which the boys were tutored. There was a great deal of sibling rivalry, especially between Ashoka & his brother Susima, both as warriors & as administrators.
Developing into an impeccable warrior general & a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several regiments of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favoured by Bindusara to become the next emperor. The eldest of them, Prince Susima, the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in the city of Takshashila in the north-west province of Sindh, of which Prince Susima was the governor. Takshashila was a highly volatile place because of the war-like Indo-Greek population & mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different militias causing unrest. Ashoka complied & left for the troubled area. As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias & the uprising ended without a fight. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist).
Ashoka's success made his half-brothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor, & more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into Kalinga & stayed incognito there. There he met a fisherwoman named Kaurwaki, with whom he fell in love; recently found inscriptions indicate that she went on to become his second or third queen.
Meanwhile, there again was a violent uprising in Ujjain. Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka back after an exile of two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain & in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists in Susima's camp could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks & nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the Buddha, & it is also where he met the beautiful Devi, who was his personal nurse & the daughter of a merchant from adjacent Vidisha. After recovering, he married her. Ashoka, at this time, was already married to Asandhimitra who was to be his much-loved chief queen for many years till her death. She seems to have stayed on in Pataliputra all her life.
The following year passed quite peacefully for him & Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meantime, Emperor Bindusara took ill & was on his death-bed. A clique of ministers lead by Radhagupta, who hated Susima, summoned Ashoka to take the crown, though Bindusara preferred Susima. As the Buddhist lore goes, in a fit of rage Prince Ashoka attacked Pataliputra (modern day Patna), & killed all his brothers, including Susima, & threw their bodies into a well in Pataliputra. It is not known if Bindusara was already dead at this time. At that stage of his life, many called him Chanda Ashoka meaning murderer & heartless Ashoka. The Buddhist legends paint a gory picture of his sadistic activities at this time. Most are unbelievable, & must be read as supporting background to highlight the transformation in Ashoka which Buddhism brought about later.
Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years: it grew to encompass an area extending from the present-day boundaries of Bangladesh & the Indian state of Assam, in the east, to the territory of present-day Iran & Afghanistan, in the west, & from the Pamir Knots in the north almost to the peninsular tip of southern India. At that stage of his life, he was called Chakravarti which literally translates to "he for whom the wheel of law turns" (broadly meaning the emperor). Around this time, his Buddhist queen Devi gave birth to two children, Prince Mahindra & Princess Sanghamitra.
The early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty. Ashoka was constantly on the war campaign, conquering territory after territory & significantly expanding the already large Mauryan empire & adding to his wealth. His last conquest was the state of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day state of Orissa. Kalinga prided itself on its sovereignty & democracy; with its monarchical-parliamentary democracy, it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata, as there existed the concept of Rajdharma, meaning the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery & Kshatriya dharma.
The pretext for the start of the Kalinga War (265 BC or 263 BC) is uncertain. One of Ashoka's brothers - & probably a supporter of Susima - might have fled to Kalinga & found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this diktat, Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit.
The general & his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tactics of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled by this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashoka's powerful armies, superior weapons & experienced generals & soldiers. The whole of Kalinga was plundered & destroyed: Ashoka's later edicts say that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side & 10,000 from Ashoka's army; thousands of men & women were deported.
As the legend goes, one day after the war was over Ashoka ventured out to roam the eastern city & all he could see were burnt houses & scattered corpses. This sight made him sick & he cried the famous quotation, "What have I done?" Upon his return to Paliputra, he could, acccording to legends, get no sleep & was constantly haunted by his deeds in Kalinga. The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism under the guidance of the Brahmin Buddhist sages Radhaswami & Manjushri [3] & he used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights, as far as ancient Rome & Egypt. When the war against Kalinga ended, Asoka's warriors had killed over 100,000 people. He was filled with sorrow. He gave up war & violence being almost the exact opposite of his grandfather, Chandragupta. He freed his prisoners & gave them back thier land.
As legend goes, there was also another factor that lead Ashoka to Buddhism. A Mauryan princess who had been married to one of Ashoka's brothers (who Ashoka executed) fled her palace with a maid, fearing for her unborn child. After much travel, the pregnant princess collapsed under a tree in the forest, & the maid ran to a nearby ashram to fetch a priest or physician to help. Meanwhile, under the tree, the princess gave birth to a son. The young prince was brought up by the Brahmins of the ashram & educated by them. Later, when he was around thirteen years old, he caught the eye of Ashoka, who was surprised to see such a young boy dressed as a sage. When the boy calmly revealed who he was, it seemed that Ashoka was moved by guilt & compassion, & moved the boy & his mother into the palace.
Meanwhile Queen Devi, who was a Buddhist, had brought up her children in that faith, & apparently left Ashoka after she saw the horrors of Kalinga. Ashoka was grieved by this, & was counselled by his nephew (who had been raised in the ashram & was more priest than prince) to embrace his dharma & draw away from war. Prince Mahindra & Princess Sanghamitra, the children of Queen Devi, abhorred violence & bloodshed, but knew that as royals war would be a part of their lives. They therefore asked Ashoka for permission to join the Buddhist monks, which Ashoka reluctantly granted. The two siblings established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).
From that point Ashoka, who had been described as "the cruel Ashoka" (Chandashoka), started to be described as "the pious Ashoka" (Dharmashoka). He propagated the Vibhajjvada school of Buddhism & preached it within his domain & worldwide from about 250 BC. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist policy.
Emperor Ashoka built thousands of Stupas & Viharas for Buddhist followers (the Ashokavadana says 84,000 such monuments were built). The Stupas of Sanchi are world famous & the stupa named Sanchi Stupa 1 was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of nonviolence or ahimsa. Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. Wildlife became protected by the king's law against sport hunting & branding. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism. Enormous resthouses were built through the empire to house travellers & pilgrims free of charge. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one day each year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study & water transit & irrigation systems for trade & agriculture. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics & caste. The weaker kingdoms surrounding his, which could so easily be overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies. In all these respects, Ashoka far exceeded even modern-day world leaders.
He is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals & people alike, & renovating major roads throughout India. Dharmashoka defined the main principles of dharma (dhamma in Pali) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sects & opinions, obedience to parents, respect for the Brahmins & other religious teachers & priests, liberal towards friends, humane treatment of servants, & generosity towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which no religious or social group could object.
The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BC. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule & the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Maurya Empire. It is difficult to determine whether certain events ever happened, but the stone etchings depict clearly of how Ashoka wanted to be thought & how he wanted to be remembered.
Ashoka's own words as known from his Edicts are: "All men are my children. I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good & the happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happy always." Edward D'Cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a "religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity & a cementing force to weld the diverse & heterogeneous elements of the empire".
Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including the Seleucid Empire & the Greco-Bactrian kingdom established by Diodotus I, none seem to have ever come into conflict with him - though the latter eventually conquered at various times western territories in India, but only after the empire's actual collapse. He was a contemporary of both Antiochus I Soter & his successor Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid Dynasty as well as Diodotus I & his son Diodotus II of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. If his inscriptions & edicts are well studied, one finds that he was familiar with the Hellenistic world but never in awe of it. The Edicts of Ashoka, which talk of friendly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire & Ptolemy III of Egypt. But the fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta Maurya met Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty, & engineered their celebrated peace. Chandragupta even supplied 500 elephants to Seleucus, which were critical to his success in his conflict with the Western dynast Antigonus, in exchange for peace (a state that would endure for as long as the Mauryan Empire existed, & was even renewed during the Eastern campaigns of Antiochus III the Great) & the latter's territories in India.
Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them written in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek populations within his realm converted to Buddhism:
"Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras & the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma." Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhammika).

Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, & a full Edict, written in both Greek & Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit:
"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (e?s?ße?a, Eusebeia) to men; & from this moment he has made men more pious, & everything thrives throughout the whole world. & the king abstains from (killing) living beings, & other men & those who (are) huntsmen & fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. & if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; & obedient to their father & mother & to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better & more happily." (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt & contemporary of Ashoka, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra in India:
"But [India] has been treated of by several other Greek writers who resided at the courts of Indian kings, such, for instance, as Megasthenes, & by Dionysius, who was sent thither by Philadelphus, expressly for the purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon the power & vast resources of these nations." Pliny the Elder, "The Natural History", Chap. 21
Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as a recipient of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remain:
"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, & even six hundred yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas & Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, & as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).
Ashoka also claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men & animals, in their territories:
"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, & among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni & where the Greek king Antiochos rules, & among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans & medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported & grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported & grown. Along roads I have had wells dug & trees planted for the benefit of humans & animals." 2nd Rock Edict
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII ).
A "marital alliance" had been concluded between Seleucus & Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta in 303 BCE:
"He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus & waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other & contracted a marriage relationship." Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55
The term used in ancient sources (Epigamia) could refer either to a dynastic alliance between the Seleucids & the Mauryas, or more generally to a recognition of marriage between Indian & Greeks. Since there are no records of an Indian princess in the abundant Classical litterature on the Seleucid, it is generally thought that the alliance went the other way around, & that a Seleucid princess may have been bethrothed to the Mauryan Dynasty. This practice in itself was quite common in the Hellenistic world to formalize alliances. There is thus a possibility that Ashoka was partly of Hellenic descent, either from his grandmother if Chandragupta married the Seleucid princess, of from his mother if Chandragupta's son, Bindusura, was the object of the marriage. This remains a hypothesis as there are no known more detailed descriptions of the exact nature of the marital alliance, although this is quite symptomatic of the generally good relationship between the Hellenistic world & Ashoka.
Information about the life & reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, & the two Pali chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Asoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Asoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Priyadarsi - meaning 'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya.
The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, & the interpretations of his edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism & was actively engaged in sponsoring & supporting the Buddhist monastic institution.
Later scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources - the Ashokan edicts - make only a few references to Buddhism directly, despite many references to the concept of dhamma (Sanskrit: dharma). Some interpreters have seen this as an indication that Ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusive, poly-religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of dharma as a positive moral force, but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of Ashoka's age (such as the Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, & Ajivikas).
Most likely, the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest. Modern scholars & adherents of the traditional Buddhist perspective both tend to agree that Ashoka's rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths.
Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years, & after his death, the Maurya dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives & children, but their names are lost to time. Mahindra & Sanghamitra were twins born by his fourth wife, Devi, in the city of Ujjain. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known & the unknown world. Mahindra & Sanghamitra went into Sri Lanka & converted the King, the Queen & their people to Buddhism. So they were naturally not the ones handling state affairs after him.
In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got his son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila, blinded by a wily stratagem. But the official executioners spared Kunala & he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka hears Kunala's song, & realizes that Kunal's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself & condemns Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunal to the court. Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati. But his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death.
into history as the ages passed by, & would have, if he had not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars & boulders with a variety of actions & teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called Prakrit.
In the year 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brhadrata, was brutally murdered by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BC-78 BC) & ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Much of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Iran, Afghanistan & Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.
Not until some 2,000 years later under Akbar the Great & his great-grandson Aurangzeb would as large a portion of the subcontinent as that ruled by Ashoka again be united under a single ruler. When India gained independence from the British Empire it adopted Ashoka's emblem for its own, placing the Dharmachakra(The Wheel of Righteous Duty) that crowned his many columns on the flag of the newly independent state.
Ashoka was ranked #53 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history.
One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism & the state. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting & earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, & supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status & regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy & the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand & the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious & secular leader.
Ashoka also said that all his courtiers were true to their self & governed the people in a moral manner
· Asoka is a largely fictionalized film based on his life.
· Ashoka ki chinta is a famous Hindi poem by Jaishankar Prasad. The poem portrays Ashoka's mindset during the Kalinga War.
· In some conspiracy theories Ashoka is mentioned as the founder of a powerful secret society called the Nine Unknown Men.
· Ashoka is a civilization leader in the PC video game Civilization 4. In the game, he is a leader of the Indian Empire, alongside Gandhi.
· In Piers Anthony's series of space opera novels, Bio of a Space Tyrant, the protagonist repeatedly mentions Asoka as a model for rulers to strive for.
Air India's first 747 aircraft was named after Emperor Ashoka.

One History book says of him he

Realises, has to impose better law, & try improving society,
Assaults insecurity, poverty, made free hospitals for poorer,
Orders national civil-service tours, to end centralisation fears,
Tried reconciling divisions, by abolishing class divides, like inequalities of respect, such,
Buddhism was made the state religion,
With orders to be kind to animals,
Setting up animal water points, vets,
Ends hunting animals as sports,

Also encouraging debates, on many issues,
And instituting laws for these,
When most regimes, then & for Cs, forbid debate massively,
Though some every so often allowed it,

The rule kept the Empire together,
Bringing inventive ideas too India, from more trade abroad,
Peace not war, conception, made India great,
Problems arose as he died, not democratising,
So ruling-classes emerged to knock, turn back his reforms,
Cherishing caste making ruling ranks by law, treated soon again best by extremes,

As time went, peace-loving virtues, forgotten by ruthless uncaring privileged, oppressors,
Unless you've democracy, rulers reside in a different world to the masses,
Not in the sense of us not mixing with the rough or posh snobs,
Who demean quiet people, as we should keep away from bullies,

So that is the story of Ashoka.

The World's Most powerful countries in periods across Human History, like 1900, or 1800

A top 20, of the world's most powerful countries ever as in USA V Mongol Empire + it V Soviet Union

Here are some more sites, there are books & articles on the subjects in many internet places, or internet book shops, bookstores, at the bottom, are lists of which were the worst regimes of the past few centuries.

An Index with links to almost all our sites.

What were the largest ever empires , find out here

What regimes were the 10 most worst in the 20thC, by damage they caused,

The Story of the guy who founded the Maratha Empire

What were the nicest regimes ever

The History Lounge, - Where you can peruse & mull over a massive range of great historical related web sites.

A site on the El Nino Famines that killed 10s of millions of Indians, & Chinese & others in the 19th Century

A site on the Belgian Congo, & how the king of that land killed 10s of millions of Congolese

Why the French Revolution was good

The most evil regimes of the 19th Century

A site on 1640s Britain

Worst 18th Century regimes