A History of Congo

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A History of Congo

A wave of advance of Neolithic peoples is identified in the Northern & North-Western parts of Central Africa during the second millennium BC. They were food producing (pearl millet), with some domestic stock, & developed a kind of arboriculture mainly based on the oil palm. Several centuries later, around -2,500 years, bananas were known to some in south Cameroon. From -3,500 to -2,000 years, starting off from a nucleus area in South Cameroon on both banks of the Sanaga River, the first Neolithic peopling of northern & western Central Africa can be followed south-eastwards & southwards.

In R.D. Congo the first villages in the vicinity of Mbandaka & the Tumba Lake are known as the 'Imbonga Tradition' around -2,600 years. In Lower-Congo, North of the Angolan border, it is the 'Ngovo Tradition' around -2,300 years which shows the arrival of the Neolithic wave of advance.

In Kivu, across the country to the East, the 'Urewe Tradition' villages first show up around -2,600 years. The few archaeological sites known in Congo are a western extension of the 'Urewe' Culture which is mainly known in Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, & Western Kenya & Tanzania. From the start of this Tradition, the people knew iron smelting as it is evidenced by several iron smelting furnaces excavated in Rwanda & Burundi.

The earliest evidence further to the West is known in Cameroon, & near to the small town of Bouar in Central Africa. Though an ongoing discussion will ultimately give us a better chronology for the start of iron production in Central Africa, it can be said the Cameroonian data pinpoints around -2,600 / -2,500 years iron smelting north of the Equatorial Forest. This technology developed in an independent way from the previous Neolithic expansion some 900 years later. As fieldwork done by a German team shows, the Congo river network was slowly settled by food producing villagers going upstream in the forest. Work from a Spanish project in the Ituri area further East suggests villages reached there only around -800 years.

The supposedly bantu-speaking Neolithic thence Iron producing villagers added to & displaced the indigenous Pygmy populations (also known in the region as the "Bitwa" or "Twa") into secondary parts of the country. Subsequent migrations from the Darfur & Kordofan regions of Sudan into the north-east, as well as East Africans migrating into the eastern Congo added to the mix of ethnic groups. The Bantus imported a mixed economy made up of agriculture, small stock raising, fishing, fruit collecting, hunting & arboriculture before -3,500 years; iron-working techniques, possibly from West Africa, are a much later addition. The villagers established the Bantu language family as the primary set of tongues for the Congolese.

In the fifth century, a society began to develop in a region that initially encompassed only a 200 kilometre (125 mi) area along the banks of the Lualaba River in the modern day Katanga Province. This culture, known as the Upemba, would eventually evolve into the more significant Luba kingdom.

The process in which the original Upemba societies transitioned into the Luba kingdom was gradual & complex. This transition ran without interruption, with several distinct societies developing out of the Upemba culture prior to the genesis of the Luba. Each of these kingdoms became very wealthy due mainly to the region's mineral wealth, especially in ores. The civilization began to develop & implement iron & copper technology, in addition to trading in ivory & other goods. The Luba established a strong commercial demand for their metal technologies & were able to institute a long-range commercial net (the business connections extended over 1,500 kilometres (930 mi), all the way to the Indian Ocean). By the 1500s, the kingdom had an established strong central government based on chieftainship.

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The Congo Free State (1870 – 1908)

Clearing tropical forests ate away at profit margins. However, ample plots of cleared land were already available. Above, a Congolese farming village (Baringa, Equateur) is emptied & levelled to make way for a rubber plantation.Main articles: Colonisation of the Congo, Congo Free State, & Belgian Congo
European exploration & administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s — first by Sir Henry Morton Stanley who undertook his explorations mainly under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium, who desired what was to become the Congo as a colony. In a succession of negotiations, the evil king of Belgium Leopold, professing humanitarian objectives in his capacity as chairman of the Association Internationale Africaine, played one European rival against the other. The Congo territory was acquired formally by Leopold at the Conference of Berlin in 1885. He made the land his private property & named it the Congo Free State. Leopold's regime began undertaking various projects, such as the railway that ran from the coast to Leopoldville (now Kinshasa) which took years to complete. Nearly all these projects were aimed at increasing the capital Leopold & his cohorts could extract from the colony, leading to atrocious exploitation of Africans. In the Free State, the local population was brutalized in exchange for rubber, a growing market with the development of rubber tires. The selling of the rubber made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels & Ostend to honour himself & his country. During the period between 1885 & 1908, between five & 30 (the commonly accepted figure is about ten) million Congolese died as a consequence of exploitation & diseases. A government commission later concluded that the population of the Congo had been "reduced by half" during this brutal period. To enforce the rubber quotas, the Force Publique (FP) was called in. The FP was an army, but its aim was not to defend the country, but to terrorise the local population. The Force Publique made the practice of cutting off the limbs of the natives as a means of enforcing rubber quotas a matter of policy; this practice was widespread. The actions of the Free State's administration sparked international protests led by E. D. Morel & British diplomat/Irish patriot Roger Casement, whose 1904 report on the Congo condemned the practice, as well as famous writers such as Mark Twain. Joseph Conrad's novella Heart of Darkness also takes place in Congo Free State. In 1908, the Belgian parliament, which was at first reluctant, bowed to international pressure by taking over the Free State from the king as a Belgian colony. From then on, it became the Belgian Congo, under the rule of the Belgian government.

Belgian Congo (1908 – 1960)
Some claim conditions in the Congo improved following the Belgian government's takeover. They say select Bantu languages were taught in primary schools, a rare occurrence in colonial education. Colonial doctors were to greatly reduce the spread of African trypanosomiasis, commonly known as sleeping sickness. The colonial administration implemented a variety of economic reforms that focused on the improvement of infrastructure: railways, ports, roads, mines, plantations & industrial areas. These were not that big a improvements, Forces labour statyed, and wars were fought against local African states to the 1930s. Most of these developements in mines, and such were for Belgian companies, and the people still lived in poverty, indeed some statements actually say there were very few trained doctors in Congo. There was still big forced labour, and rampant sleeping sickness, the forces labour staying into World War Tow, and past it. So hardly the paternalistic image some crazy right wing lunatics claim. The Congolese people, also lacked political power & faced legal discrimination. All colonial policies were decided in Belgium & the still evil king's part of his name, Leopoldville. The Belgian Colony-secretary & Governor-general, neither of whom was elected by the Congolese people, wielded absolute power. Among the Congolese people, resistance against their undemocratic regime grew over time. In 1955, the Congolese upper class (the so-called "évolués"), many of whom had been educated in Europe, initiated a campaign to end the inequality. It is still true though at Belgian rule was still bad, with apalling rule. With forced labour past 1945, and very low life expectanccies and literacy. There have some deranged claims that Belgian rule saw Congo have a life expectancy in the 50s in the 1950s, and that education and health was amazing. In reality I edited some of those ludicrous claims on Wikipedia, and discovered the life expectancy was 38-39.5 in the 1950s, on independance. And that even after wars and dictatorship and western war style efforts to oust left wing leaders and so destroy the regimes the people wanted and the desires of the people, (while the west gave help to oppressive brutal dictatorships that supported far right ideals across the world -i.e they attacked pro democracy and equality pl;aces trying to destroy them like South Africa did to Mozambique, but helped oppressive murderous regimes, leaders get stability, as in many places where brutal rightists led, which was the biggest shame of the western world post 1945) the Life expectancy was in the 50s in the 2000s, not below what it was in the early 1950s as some claim. The idea a land which still had some forced labour, in the 1950s, and which had in actual fact very few doctors and not many roads had a life expectancy in the 50s in the 1950s shows how appalling the pro colonial era myth makers are. We really need truth telling text books that say colonialism, was bad, just like any dictatorship. Added to this wars were still being fought against African states in the Congo by Belgium into the 1920s.

During World War II, the small Congolese army achieved several victories against the Italians in North Africa. The Belgian Congo, which was also rich in uranium deposits, supplied the uranium that was used by the United States to build the atomic weapons that were used in the bombings of Hiroshima & Nagasaki in August 1945.

Political crises (1960 – 1965)
In May 1960, the MNC party or Mouvement National Congolais, led by Patrice Lumumba, won the parliamentary elections, & Lumumba was appointed Prime Minister. Joseph Kasavubu, of the ABAKO (Alliance des Bakongo) party, was elected President by the parliament. Other parties that emerged include the Parti Solidaire Africain (or PSA, led by Antoine Gizenga) & the Parti National du Peuple (or PNP led by Albert Delvaux & Laurent Mbariko).

The Belgian Congo achieved independence on June 30, 1960 under the name "Republic of Congo" or "Republic of the Congo" ("République du Congo"). As the French colony of Middle Congo (Moyen Congo) also chose the name "Republic of Congo" upon receiving its independence, the two countries were more commonly known as "Congo-Léopoldville" & "Congo-Brazzaville", after their capital cities. In 1966, Joseph Mobutu changed the country's official name to "Democratic Republic of the Congo", & in 1971 it was changed again to "Republic of Zaïre".

Shortly after independence, the provinces of Katanga (with Moise Tshombe) & South Kasai engaged in secessionist struggles against the new leadership.

Subsequent events led to a crisis between President Kasavubu & Prime Minister Lumumba. On September 5, 1960, Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba from office. Lumumba declared Kasavubu's action "unconstitutional" & a crisis between the two leaders developed.

Lumumba had previously appointed Joseph Mobutu chief of staff of the new Congo army, Armee Nationale Congolaise (ANC). Taking advantage of the leadership crisis between Kasavubu & Lumumba, Mobutu garnered enough support within the army to create sentiment sufficient to inspire mutinous action. With financial support from the United States & Belgium, Mobutu made payments to his soldiers in order to generate their loyalty. The aversion of Western powers towards communism & leftist ideology in general influenced their decision to finance Mobutu's quest to maintain "order" in the new state by neutralizing Kasavubu & Lumumba in a coup by proxy.

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On January 17, 1961, Katangan forces, supported by the Belgian government's desire to retain rights to mine for copper & diamonds in Katanga & South Kasai & the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's desire to remove any leftist sympathizers in the region, assassinated Patrice Lumumba. Amidst widespread confusion & chaos, a temporary government led by technicians (College des Commissaires) with Evariste Kimba, & several short governments Joseph Ileo, Cyrille Adoula, Moise Tshombe took over in quick succession. It is a disgrace that governments of the left saw western regimes try to destablize them, when they were for good.

Zaire (1971 – 1997)
Following five years of extreme instability & civil unrest, Joseph-Désiré Mobutu, now Lieutenant General, overthrew Kasavubu in a 1965 Central Intelligence Agency-backed coup. He had the support of the United States on account of his staunch opposition to Communism, which would presumably make him a roadblock to Communist schemes in Africa. It is also argued that the Western support for Mobutu was also related to his allowing businesses to export the many natural resources of Zaire without worrying about environmental, labour, or other regulations. A one-party system was established, & Mobutu declared himself head of state. He would periodically hold elections in which he was the only candidate.

Relative peace & stability was achieved; however, Mobutu's government was accused of human rights violations, repression, a cult of personality (every Congolese bank note displayed his image, his portrait was displayed in all public buildings, most businesses, & on billboards, & it was common for ordinary people to wear his likeness on their clothing), & excessive corruption. In 1984 he was said to have $4 billion (USD), an amount close to the country's national debt, deposited in a personal Swiss bank account.

In an effort to spread African national consciousness, starting on June 1, 1966, Mobutu renamed the nation's cities (Léopoldville became Kinshasa [the country was now Democratic Republic of The Congo – Kinshasa], Stanleyville became Kisangani, & Elisabethville became Lubumbashi). This renaming campaign was completed in the 1970s. In 1971, he renamed the country the Republic of Zaire, its fourth name change in 11 years & its sixth overall. The Congo River became the Zaire River. In 1972, Mobutu renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga.

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, U.S. relations with Kinshasa cooled, as Mobutu was no longer deemed a necessary Cold War ally, & his opponents within Zaire stepped up demands for reform. This atmosphere contributed to Mobutu's declaring the Third Republic in 1990, whose constitution was supposed to pave the way for democratic reform. The reforms turned out to be largely cosmetic, & Mobutu's rule continued until conflict forced him to flee Zaire in 1997. The name of the nation was returned to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, as the name Zaire carried strong connections to the rule of Mobutu.

Conflict & transition (1996 – present)
Main articles: First Congo War, Second Congo War, Ituri Conflict, & Transitional Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Since 1994, the Congo has been wrought by ethnic strife & civil war, touched off by a massive inflow of refugees fleeing the Rwandan Genocide. The government of Mobutu Sese Seko was toppled by a rebellion led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila in May 1997; he changed the country's name back to Democratic Republic of The Congo-Kinshasa (the capital of Congo/Zaire). His former allies soon turned against him, however, & his regime was challenged by a Rwandan & Ugandan-backed rebellion in August 1998. Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, & Sudan intervened to support the new regime in Kinshasa. See Foreign relations of Congo & First Congo War.

A cease-fire was signed on July 10, 1999; nevertheless, fighting continued apace especially in the eastern part of the country, financed by revenues from the illegal extraction of minerals such as coltan, cassiterite & diamonds. Kabila was assassinated in January 2001 & his son Joseph Kabila was named head of state. The new president quickly began overtures to end the war & an accord was signed in South Africa in 2002. By late 2003, a fragile peace prevailed as the Transitional Government was formed. Kabila appointed four vice presidents, two of whom had been fighting to oust him until July 2003. Much of the east of the country remains insecure, primarily due to the Ituri conflict & the continued activity of the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda in the Kivus.

This period of conflict has been the bloodiest in history since World War II. Almost four million people have died as a result of the fighting. The United Nations is concerned that 1000 people a day are still dying as a result of the conflict & described 2006 as a "make or break point" for the continuing humanitarian crisis.

On July 30, 2006, the Congo held its first multi-party elections since independence in 1960. After this Joseph Kabila took 45% of the votes & his main opponent Jean-Pierre Bemba took 20%. That was the origin of a two-day fight between the two factions from August 20, 2006 in the streets of the capital, Kinshasa. Sixteen people died before police & the UN mission, MONUC, took control of the city.

A second round of elections between the two leading candidates, Kabila & Bemba, was held on 29 October, 2006. Rioters destroyed polling stations in Congo's east & electoral officials organized a revolt over burned ballots in the north. Despite that, the presidential vote was called a success. Both Kabila & Bemba assured that they would respect the result, but Bemba's militants have begun riots in opposition of the decision by the Supreme Court that will legitimise Kabila's 58%-42% winning result on the run-off.

Bemba has argued for his supporters to stop fighting the government & vowed to take his seat as an official opposition leader. But despite successful elections held in the second half of 2006 & an overall increase in the level of stability, over a million people remained internally displaced in the east of the country, according to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre.

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On July 30, 2007, a report by Yakin Erturk, special rapporteur for the United Nations Human Rights Council on violence against women, found extreme sexual violence against women is pervasive in the DRC & local authorities do little to stop it or prosecute those responsible. Her report also found 'women are gang raped, often in front of their families & communities. In numerous cases, male relatives are forced at gun point to rape their own daughters, mothers or sisters.' Survivors told Ertuck that after rape, many women are held as slaves by the gangs & forced to eat excrement or the flesh of their murdered relatives.

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